Sex differences in Cognitive Abilities Test scores: a UK national picture

Background and aims. There is uncertainty about the extent or even existence of sex differences in the mean and variability of reasoning test scores ( Jensen, 1998; Lynn, 1994, ; Mackintosh, 1996). This paper analyses the Cognitive Abilities Test (CAT) scores of a large and representative sample of UK pupils to determine the extent of any sex differences. Sample. A nationally representative UK sample of over 320,000 school pupils aged 11-12 years was assessed on the CAT (third edition) between September 2001 and August 2003. The CAT includes separate nationally standardized tests for verbal, quantitative, and non-verbal reasoning. The size and recency of the sample is unprecedented in research on this issue. Methods. The sheer size of the sample ensures that any sex difference will achieve statistical significance. Therefore, effect sizes (d) and variance ratios (VR) are employed to evaluate the magnitude of sex differences in mean scores and in score variability, respectively. Results. The mean verbal reasoning score for girls was 2.2 standard score points higher than the mean for boys, but only 0.3 standard points in favour of girls for non-verbal reasoning (NVR), and 0.7 points in favour of boys for quantitative reasoning (QR). However, for all three tests there were substantial sex differences in the standard deviation of scores, with greater variance among boys. Boys were over represented relative to girls at both the top and the bottom extremes for all tests, with the exception of the top 10% in verbal reasoning. Conclusions. Given the small differences in means, explanations for sex differences in wider domains such examination attainment at age 16 need to look beyond conceptions of `ability'. Boys tend to be both the lowest and the highest performers in terms of their reasoning abilities, which warns against the danger of stereotyping boys as low achievers

Letter from Pauline Smith to Christine Smith; December 7, 1936

From the Ellard-Murphree-Pilgreen-Smith Family Papers Collectionhttps://athenacommons.muw.edu/smithpapers/1054/thumbnail.jp

Letter from Pauline Smith to Christine Smith and Martha Smith; September 28, 1936

From the Ellard-Murphree-Pilgreen-Smith Family Papers Collectionhttps://athenacommons.muw.edu/smithpapers/1044/thumbnail.jp

Letter from Pauline Smith to Christine Smith; October 9, 1936

From the Ellard-Murphree-Pilgreen-Smith Family Papers Collectionhttps://athenacommons.muw.edu/smithpapers/1046/thumbnail.jp

Letter from Pauline Smith to Martha Smith; November 2, 1936

From the Ellard-Murphree-Pilgreen-Smith Family Papers Collectionhttps://athenacommons.muw.edu/smithpapers/1050/thumbnail.jp

Letter from Pauline Smith to Martha Smith; October 19, 1936

From the Ellard-Murphree-Pilgreen-Smith Family Papers Collectionhttps://athenacommons.muw.edu/smithpapers/1048/thumbnail.jp

Letter from Pauline Smith to Christine Smith; November 19, 1936

From the Ellard-Murphree-Pilgreen-Smith Family Papers Collectionhttps://athenacommons.muw.edu/smithpapers/1052/thumbnail.jp

Barriers to Diabetes Self-Management in Grenada During the Covid-19 Pandemic: A Qualitative Study

During the COVID-19 lockdown, several countries implemented restrictions that affected how persons with diabetes managed their condition. While several studies exploring diabetes self-management during the pandemic was conducted, none was done in Grenada or the Caribbean region. Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify the barriers to diabetes self-management during the COVID-19 lockdown in Grenada. The study was a descriptive qualitative study with a phenomenological approach. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 13 participants with type 2 diabetes in Grenada over two months. Two overarching themes emerged, reflecting external and internal barriers to diabetes self-management activities. The results indicated that these personal and environmental barriers significantly affected adherence across the five self-management behaviors. The findings may be used to develop a multidisciplinary approach to improve self-management skills and attitudes and promote appropriate diabetes disaster planning for a future pandemic. Addressing those barriers to diabetes self-management will improve health outcomes and quality of life

Letter from Pauline Smith to Christine Smith; October 26, 1936

From the Ellard-Murphree-Pilgreen-Smith Family Papers Collectionhttps://athenacommons.muw.edu/smithpapers/1049/thumbnail.jp

Market Review of the Organic Dairy Sector in Wales, 2007

In the UK, in January 2006, the total area of organic and in-conversion land was 619,852 ha. This represents a decrease of 8% compared to January 2005. In Wales, in January 2006, the area of fully organic land increased to 5% of the total area of agricultural land. The number of organic producers and growers, including those in-conversion, increased from 618 in 2003 to 688 in 2006. Organic producers represent approximately 4% of all farmers in Wales. Welsh organic producers represent 16.6% of the UK total number of organic producers and growers. UK organic milk production increased from 17 million litres in 1997/8 to over 300 million litres in 2005/6. In Wales, in 2005, dairy and milk products represented 26% of the total gross product of Welsh Agriculture. In March 2007, according to data supplied to ADAS by certification bodies, there were 86 fully-organic dairy producers in Wales and 12 in conversion. This represents 4% of the total number of dairy producers in Wales. In 2005, an estimated 50 million litres of milk were produced on 108 organic farms with ca. 9,500 dairy cattle – the number of holdings is higher than the ADAS 2007 figure, but some may have been in suspended conversion due to the lack of a market, or have subsequently withdrawn from milk production. The 12 producers who started conversion in 2006 will supply an estimated additional 12 million litres/pa of organic milk when converted. There has been a marked increase in requests for OCIS advice from dairy farmers. These increased from 4 in 2004 to 71 in 2006. Key challenges facing organic dairy farmers in Wales include milk price, forage production and optimising milk from forage. The UK dairy sector holds the second-largest share of the organic market with an estimated £294m sales at retail level in 2005 and 22% of the overall organic market. The majority of organic milk enters the liquid market. Organic dairy consumers are primarily ABC1. They have diverse shopping habits, use a variety of retail outlets and want information to assist in purchasing decisions and to justify price premiums. There appears to be a positive correlation between increases in sales of organic milk and dairy products and the publicity given to research findings about the health benefits of organic milk. Sales of organic liquid milk in the UK grew from 73.8 million litres in 2004 to 158 million in 2006. Because of increased demand, the UK market moved from oversupply to seasonal undersupply. Projected growth in demand, if fulfilled, will create new opportunities for producers willing to convert. Key market drivers identified by stakeholders were publicity on the health benefits of organic milk, animal welfare concerns and increased interest from major retailers. Main constraints on the development of the organic dairy market were under-supply, lack of promotion, distribution issues, seasonality of production, increased feed costs and lack of processing facilities. The main strategies needed to develop the organic dairy market identified by stakeholders were co-operation, increased conversions, consumer education, a higher profile for organic food and long term supply chain agreements. The Welsh Organic Dairy sector has seen considerable product innovation since 2003. Recommendations 1. A joint effort by the whole organic dairy industry is required to plan ahead to ensure that the number of dairy farm conversions will not lead to a repetition of the oversupply problem experienced in the past. 2. Consideration should be given to setting up an Organic Dairy Sub-Group in Wales. 3. The numbers of farms converted and in-conversion needs to be accurately monitored. 4. Advice and technical knowledge on organic dairy farming needs to be made available through Organic Centre Wales. 5. The industry needs to look into ways of encouraging more organic cereal and alternative protein crops to be grown in order to prevent the shortage of organic feed. 6. Continued research is needed to address the issues identified in this report. 7. It is important that organic dairy farming research should be continued at Ty Gwyn, Trawscoed. 8. There is a need to continue to increase the public awareness of organic farming and agriculture as a whole. 9. Welsh branding of organic products should be developed. 10. The Welsh organic dairy industry should examine ways of increasing sales particularly through outlets other than the multiple retailers